Title: Enhanced perception of risk in a driving simulator

Authors: Francesco Walker; Andrea L. Hauslbauer; Daniel Preciado; Marieke H. Martens; Willem B. Verwey

Addresses: University of Twente, 5, Drienerlolaan, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands ' University of Twente, 5, Drienerlolaan, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands ' Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands ' Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands; TNO, Anna van Buerenplein 1, 2496 RZ The Hague, The Netherlands ' University of Twente, 5, Drienerlolaan, 7522 NB Enschede, The Netherlands

Abstract: One major concern with driving simulator studies is the lack of perceived risk for participants. This has led some authors to question the behavioural validity of simulator-based research. In this study, we investigated this concern by compensating for the possible perceived absence of risk with an anxiety-inducing risk factor: Participants were told that if they had a collision, they would receive a mild electric shock. We hypothesised that the addition of the new risk factor would increase participants' 'sense of presence' - the feeling of truly being and belonging in the virtual environment. We also analysed their driving behaviour, physiology, anxiety, and workload. Overall, we observed very few differences between the threat and the control group: Both reported a strong sense of presence. This suggests that, even without the risk of physical harm, mid-level driving simulators already elicit a strong sense of presence and that the 'lack of physical crash risk' is unlikely to affect study results.

Keywords: simulated driving; driving simulator; sense of presence; ecological validity; behavioural validity; risk perception; human factors; shock paradigm; mid-level simulator; driving behaviour; presence; fear conditioning; virtual environments; virtual reality.

DOI: 10.1504/IJHFMS.2019.105428

International Journal of Human Factors Modelling and Simulation, 2019 Vol.7 No.2, pp.100 - 118

Received: 18 Apr 2019
Accepted: 19 Aug 2019
Published online: 28 Feb 2020 *

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